Reference Crutsinger, Short and Sollenberger2016), but also due to their popularity for recreational purposes (Rebolo-Ifrán et al. The use of remotely piloted aircraft (e.g., drones) is growing not only due to their numerous applications in civil fields (Crutsinger et al.
There are huge differences in the regulation of protected areas between different habitat types, countries and even regions, which make it extremely difficult to develop and apply effective global measures. Reference DeVault, Blackwell and Belant2013, Moreno-Opo & Margalida Reference Moreno-Opo and Margalida2017, Tobajas et al. Regulations regarding aeronautical operations in natural and protected areas are still poorly defined, although they do include some restrictions relating to migration routes of large birds and prohibitions/controls in certain locations (e.g., over wetlands or national parks DeVault et al. We provide recommendations to improve the regulation of this activity. However, the lack of studies on many species and areas, along with the small number of long-term studies, prevents proper assessment of the current situation regarding the impact of this activity on wildlife. Data show that free-flight activities create disturbances and have negative effects on wildlife, resulting in increased energy expenditure, reduction of feeding time, abandonment of feeding areas, reduced breeding output, loss of body condition, increased predation risk and harm from flight accidents. The studies have generally been carried out in high mountain areas (e.g., the European Alps). We found that studies mainly concerned the effects on four ungulate species (chamois, red deer, roe deer and Alpine ibex) and, to a lesser extent, on raptors such as the golden eagle and two vulture species (bearded vulture and cinereous vulture). We review the existing scientific studies on this issue in order to identify the gaps in knowledge at the taxonomic-group level in order to develop guidelines to minimize the impacts of recreational free-flight on wildlife.
Recreational activities may have negative effects on wildlife, but there are very few studies specifically on the effects of free-flight activities (i.e., hang-gliders, paragliders and their powered derivatives) on wildlife.
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